The Axis Alliance

The Axis Alliance

 

Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact September 27, 1940. The agreement allied Germany and Italy (which were at war with Britain) and Japan (which was at war with China). Germany and Italy has since 1939-40 been at war with Britain. Japan since 1937 had been at war with China. The alliance did not require the partners to join these wars, but it did require them to come to each other's aid if attacked by any country. The alliance became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis alliance, or commonly the Axis. The three Axis partners recognized German hegemony over most of Europe; Italian hegemony in the Mediterranean, and Japanese hegemony in East Asia. After the Axis agreement was signed, several German allies joined the Axis, notably Vichy France and Fascist Spain refused to do so. Japan had no Asian allies, except for the puppet state of Manchukuo.

Background

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in the 1920s provided a model for Hitler. Mussolini was at first dimissive of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi’s. After Hitler seized power he was concened about the independence of Austria anbd possible German clains to the Italian held South Tyrol. After Allied criticism of his seixzure of Ethiopia, Mussolini began to warm to Hitler. 

It was Mussolini in 1936 that proposed a Rome-Berlin AXIS. By 1937 it was Hitler that was increasingly calling the tune. Mussolini made no effort to interfere with Hitler at the Munichgh Conference. And he convinced Mussolini, after facing down the British at Munich, to sign the anti-Commitern Pact in November 1937. 

Dazzeled by the success of the Germans, Mussolini after France was near collapse, entered the War. Japan, the other major partner, was of mixed minds about Nazi Germany. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939) damaged the reputation of many seeking to build a closer relsationship with Germany against the Soviet Union. American diplomacy supporting China, however, gradually convinced the Japanese that they would have to confront America and they saw an alliance with Germany as a way of counter-ballancing the vast industrial strength of the United States.

Totalitarian Political Parties

World War II was in many ways a continuation of World War I. It was also a result of the emergence of political parties, primarily Fascist parties, which idealized war. Despite the experience of World War I, the Fascists idealized war. The Fascists were willing to employ coercion in international affairs much as they employed as part of their policies domestically. This commitment to war was normally disguised in part propganda. While not as committed ideologically to war, the Communist were quite willingto employ coercion both domestically and iternationally. Fascism and Communism are often seen as opposite ends of the political spectrum. In fact there are many similarities. It was not accident that until June 1941, Hitler and Stalin were partners.

Chronological Development (1936 - 1941)

The Axis was a military alliance which slowly evolved (1936-40). Although conceived as a defensive pact, the Axis countries turned it into a war-time coalition (1941). The Axis partners, however, never committed to the level of military cooperation achieved by the Allies. This proved to be a fatal flaw of the Axis which managed by 1940-41 to achieve a substantial military advantage over the Allies. 

Rome-Berlin Axis (October 1936)

Mussolini did not take Hitler seriously until, much to his surprise, he seized power (1933). There were at first, no quick move to establish an alliance despite their similsar Fascist ideologies. Mussolini at first feared German territorial expansion south. Mussolini moved troops tithe Austrian border when it seemed that Hitler was attempting to seize Austria (1934). Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia (October 1935) impaired relations with the democracies (Britain and France). This fundamentally changed the European geopolitical framework. 

The democracies criticism was a major factor in Mussolini's rapprochement with Hitler. Mussolini was outraged with the democracies. This was an important step in freeing Germany's ability to to end the Versailles restrictiins and the Anglo-French strategic encirclement. This was followed by Italy and Germany supporting Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936). Hitler and Mussolini agreed to cooperate diplomatically and signed a treaty of frienship (October 25, 1936). 

Initially Mussolini had been concerned with the rise of the Nazi’s and backed Austrian independence. Allied (British and French) opposition to his invasion of Ethiopia apparently had a major impact on reorienting his stratehic thinking. Mussolini first used the term "axis" (November 1). Speaking at Milan's cathedral. he referred to the evolving relationship as an "axis". This appears to be a strange term for an alliance. Apparently the concept was that Europe would revolve around their regimes. The actual agreement was formulated by Italy’s foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son in law. (He would eventually be shot in a Nazi concentration camp.) The agreement was an informal one. It did not become a formal military alliance until the Pact of Steel (1939).

Anti - Comitern Pact (November 1936)

The fondation for the Axis agreement was laid with the signing of the Anti-Comitern Pact. Relations with the Soviets which had been damaged with the seizure of Manchuria worsened when Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (1936). The Japanese and Germans signed a protocol in Berlin aimed directly at the Soviet Union (November 25, 1936). The purpose was to "guard" against the Communistic International. 

The agreement was very simple. It read, " The Imperial Government of Japan and the Government of Germany, In cognizance of the fact that the object of the Communistic International (the so-called Komintern) is the disintegration of, and the commission of violence against, existing States by the exercise of all means at its command, Believing that the toleration of interference by the Communistic International in the internal affairs of nations not only endangers their internal peace and social welfare, but threatens the general peace of the world, Desiring to co-operate for defense against communistic disintegration, have agreed as follows. 

Article I The High Contracting States agree that they will mutually keep each other informed concerning the activities of the Communistic International, will confer upon the necessary measure of defense, and will carry out such measures in close co-operation. Article II The High Contracting States will jointly invite third States whose internal peace is menaced by the disintegrating work of the Communistic International, to adopt defensive measures in the spirit of the present Agreement or to participate in the present Agreement. Article III The Japanese and German texts are each valid as the original text of this Agreement. The Agreement shall come into force on the day of its signature and shall remain in force for the term of five years. 

The High Contracting States will, in a reasonable time before the expiration of the said term, come to an understanding upon the further manner of their co-operation." It was signed by Viscount Kintomo Mushakoji Imperial Japanese Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and Joachim von Ribbentrop German Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The agreement was clearly aimed at the Soviet Union. Japan and Germany agreed if attacked by the Soviets to consult on what measures were needed. The two countries also agreed that neither would conclude political treaties with the Soviet Union. Germany agreed to recognize the Japanese puppet regime of Manchuko. Italy subsequently joined the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937). Hitler subsequently violated the terms of the pact when he negotiated Nazi-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939).

Pact of Steel (May 1939)

Germany and Italy signed a treaty turning the Rome-Berlin Axis into a military alliance. Galeazzo Ciano and Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the agreement (May 22). The agreement which became known as the Pact of Steel, was in effect a defensive military alliance in the event of attack by a third country. In such a case the partners would offer immediate assistance including military support. In event of war the two countries agreed that neither would make peace without the consent of the other. They also agreed to collaborate in military and wartime production. 

The pact was initially made for a 10 year period. At the time the agreement was signed, the German economy was on a war footing, the Italian economy was not. Hitler had just seized the parts of Czechoslovakia that was left over after Munich (March 1939). He was begining to focus on Poland. He thought that it might be possible to seize Poland without igniting a general European war. There is no evidence that he shared these thoughts with Mussolini nor that Mussolini was aware of how close the War was. 

War Partners (June 1940)

At the outbreak of Second World War in 1939, Mussolini fearing war was unwilling to follow Hitler. Mussolini was, however, dazzeled by Nazi successes in Poland, Denmark, and Norway. The successes in the West beginning with the assault on the Lowlands and France (May 10, 1940) apparently determined the issue. 

The Axis Alliance was a essentially a defensive alliance. It did not require Italy to join Germany in the War. Finally Mussolini simply could not resist the potential territorial gains. Mussolini once the French Arny had been essentially defeated, declared war on Britain and France (June 10). Four days later the Nazi’s entered Paris (June 14). President Roosevelt commented in a sppech, "The hand that held the dagger, plunged it into the back of a neighbor". Italy was unprepared for war and as a penunsular nation was far more exposed to the British Royal Navy than Germany was. The War would destroy Mussolini's Fascist regime. Hitler by the end of the War concluded that Italy was more of a hinference than an asset.

Tripartite Pact (September 1940)

The Japanese were initially reluctant to accept Hitler's 1939 offer to formally join the German-Italian Axis alliance. The German defeat of the Netherlands and epecially France apparently caused the Japanese to reverse their position. The defeat of the French and the occupation of the Netherlands meant that the colonies of these countries in Southeast Asia were vulnerable. 

The Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia) were particularly important because of their oil resources. Rubber was another important resource available in the region. Japan had been importing oil from the United States, but America was increasing pressure on Japan to end the war in China. Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, making the country a member of the Axis military alliance (September 27). The Pact allied Germany, Italy, and Japan and became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, or more commonly Axis alliance.

Japan enters the War (December 1941)

Hitler invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941). Hitler engaged in no advance consultations with his Axis partner over war with the Siviet Union. Expectging a victorious Summer campaign, he did not press the Japanese to join the campaign. Japanese diplomats, however, suggested to him that Japan would join the assault on the Soviet Union. As the campaihn began to bog down, Hitler became increasingly interested in Japanese involvement. 

The Japanese without any consultation, however, struck south at American and Britain rather than north at the Soviet Union (December 7). The attack on Pearl Harbor brought America into the War, but only a war in the Pacific. The day before the Soviets launched a major Winter offensive before Moscow. Hitler in a still not fully understood decession, declared war on the United States (December 11). Not only was this not required by the Axis Alliance, but he made this decession unilaterally without any requirement that Japan reciprocate by declaring war on the Soviet Union.

Axis Members

The agreement allied Germany and Italy (which were at war with Britain) and Japan (which was at war with China). Germany and Italy has since 1939-40 been at war with Britain. Japan since 1937 had been at war with China. The alliance became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis alliance, or commonly the Axis. After the Axis agreement was signed, several German allies joined the Axis, notably Vichy France and Fascist Spain refused to do so. 

Several German allies did join the Axis: one major partner like  Kingdom of Romania, which has the largest reserves of oil from Europe (3 November 1940) and other minor: Slovakia (November 1940), Hungary (November 1940), and Bulgaria (March 1941). Finland fought with Germany against the Soviet Union in an effort to regain territory lost to Stalin in 1940, but never signed the Tripartite Pact and thus was not technically a member of the Axis alliance. 

The Yugoslavian Royal Government, under intense German presure, joined the Axis alliance on March 25, 1941, but withdrew 2days later after an anti-German coup overthrew the government. After Germany and its allies invaded and partitioned Yugoslavia, the new Fascist puppet state of Croatia joined the Axis on June 15, 1941. Although Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany had played a key role in the Nationlist (Fascist) victory over the Spanish Republic, Fascist Spain refused to join the Axis alliance or to enter the war with Bfritain in 1940 and Russia in 1941. Japan had no Asian allies, except or the puppet state of Manchukuo.

Other countries

Several other countries attempted to join the Axis in WW II or were associated in various ways with Axis countries. This included an interesting mix of countries and groups. Some but not all were Fascist. As Britain was a large colonial power, anti-colonialism was an important factor. The Germans played with these groups, but never took full advantage of this--especiall Arab anti-British sentiment. A factor here was Italy which while opposed to Britain, wanted to replace them as the colonial power rather than liberate the Arabs. There seems to have been little appreciation among the Arabs as to the consequences of an Axis victory.

Argentina: The Argentine Government was sympathetic toward the Axis, but Allied naval power and public opinion prevented any formal relationship.

Iraq: Iraq attemted to join the Axis after the successful German operation in the Balkans and seizure of Crete (April-March 1941). Vichy officials in Syria assisted the Germans, but a British military expedition managed to keep Iraq out of Axis hands. This was an operation of considerable importance because the British naval operations in the eastern Meditterean and the military operations in the Western Desert were dependent on Iraqi oil.

Finland: Finland signed the Anti-Cominturn Pact, but never joined the Axis because of fundamental differences with Fascism. The Finns did join Germany in Operation Barbarossa. The Finns refer to this as "co-beligerence" and there war aims were to regain the territory seized by Stalin in the Winter War.

France (Vichy): Vichy was dominated by Fascist elements. While Vichy never joined the Axis, they did privide military and economic support to the German war effort. Vichy refused, however, to participate in Barbarossa and kept the French fleet out of German hands.

Spain: Spain signed the Anti-Cominturn Pact, but never joined the Axis. Unlike the Finns, Franco's Fascist regime was sympathetic to the Axis. Spain did not enter the War only because Hitler offered insufficent inducements and the fact that Spain would have been exposed to Allied naval power. The Spanish committed a division to Barbarossa, but remained neutral in the War.

Non-ruling groups: There were also non-ruling groups such, especially Eguptians, Indians, and Palestinians that were sympathetic to the Axis.

The Soviet Union

Stalin and the Soviets are seen today as the great foe of Hitler and the Nazi’s. In fact Stalin was for the first years of the War essentially allied to the Axis. The Nazi’s an Soviets had in August 1940 signed a Non-Agression Pact making Stalin and Hitler virtually allies. This left Hitler free to invade Poland and in effect launch World War 2. After the War began the world's attention was primarily focussed on Germany and Hitler. 

Stalin proceeded to conduct his own series of agressions. The Soviets attacked or occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Kingdom of Romania. Raw material, especially oil, that the Soviets shipped to Gemany made a major contibution to the German war effort. The Japanese tried to convince the Germans to accept the Soviets into the Axis alliance. The Japanese in 19?? signed a non-agression pact with the Soviets. After the German launched Operation Barbarossa and invaded in 1941, but failed to defeat the Soviets, German diplomats attempted to draw the Japanese into their war with the Soviets. The Japanese declined. In fact they wanted to Hitler to form a grand alliance with the Soviets.

NAZI - Soviet Cooperation (1939-1941)

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (August 1939) essentially made the Nazi’s and Soviets allies. The Soviets never joined the Axis, although Japanese diplomats argued that they should be allowed to join. Even so, the Soviets were a very important Nazi ally. Second World War histories generally mention the Pact in terms of making possible the Nazi invasion of Poland and then generally provide littleadditional information on the Pact and the Nazi-Soviet alliance. This is in part because after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, the Soviets became a key element of the Allied struggle against the Axis. And this Soviet aggressions were inconvenient in depicging the struggle with the Axis as one between good and evil. 

Unfortunaltely, subsequent historians have focused on Nazi campaigns and occupation policies and generally left untouched the 2 years in which the Nazi’s and Soviets cooperated. There was extensive cooperation between the two powers as they proceeded to divide Europe between themselves. The relation was troubled over differences between how Eastern Europe was to be divided, espcially disagreements over Finland, Lithuania, and Romania. With the Royal Navy blockade in place, the Soviet Union became Germany's most important sypplier of strategic materials. TheSoviets also facilitated contacts between Germany and Japan.

Axis Alliance Provisions

The alliance did not require the partners to join these wars, but it did require them to come to each other's aid if attacked. The three Axis partners agreed to recognize German hegemony over most of Europe; Italian hegemony in the Mediterranean, and Japanese hegemony in East Asia. The alliance committed the members to come to each others assistance if attacked. It did not commit them to military assistance against countries attacked. Thus when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Japan remained neutral. When Japan attacked America, however, Hitler declared war on Americ even though he was not obligated to do so. The interesting aspect of the Axis alliance was that Hitler saw of it as a way to weakn the British and distract America. As it worked out, the principal impact was to bring America into the War, an action Hitler had been trying to delay.

Axis Strategic Cooperation

Hitler appears to have conceived an alliance with the Japanese as a way of dividing the world in what he called Operation Orient. While the Japanese ageeed to the Anti-Comitern Pactb (1936) and the Axis (1940), Hitler never suceeded in convincing the Japanese in commiting to his campaihn against the Siviet Union, even after he declared war on the United States when Japan attacked Peal Harbor (1941). Germany launched World War 2 when it invaded Poland on September 1, 1939 causing Britain and France declared war on September 3.

Britain and France had pledged to defend Poland in case of German invasion. Germany defeated the Polish Army in October 1939, the Polish Government never agreed to an armistace. The Germans then defeated the French Army and forced the country to sign an armistace in June 1940. Italy on June 10, *just before the armistace, entred the war. Japan after signing the Axis agreement did not join the war with Britain in Europe. 

After signing the Axis agreement, Japan did not join the war against Britain. Japan did seize the French colony of Indo-China (Vietnam) which brought about American sanctions. Japan had been at war with China since 1937. Japanese planners in 1941 pondered their course of action, especially after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Some expected them to attack north at Soviet Siberia. Had they done so, almost surely the Soviet Union reeling unde German attack, would have been defeated. Instead they attacked south at American Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. There was vitually no coordintion among Axis partners in military strategy, in contrast to the closely coordinate Allied operations. There was especially close cooperation between Ameica and Britain, but there was also some coordination with the Soviets.

Technical Cooperation

While there was no real strategic coordination, there was considerable technological copperation among Axis countries.


Early German-Japanese cooperation

There was a tradition of military cooperation between Gernany and Japan. The modern Japanesec Army was toa substantial extent organized by German officers. Japanese school children still wear Prussian cadet uniforms, a legacy of that early cooperation. Even so, Japan joined the Allies during World War I and was rewarded with German concessions in China and island colonies in the Pacific.

Early NAZI-Japanese cooperation

The Treaty of Versailles prohibited the Germans from building an airforce or U-boats. Even before the rise of the Nazi’s, German companies operated in Japan, the Netherlands and other countries developing new techologies. Japanese submaries and air planes were thus developed with German technology. This cooperation intensified after the Nazi’s seized power (1933). Heinkel played a major role in debeloping the Val dive bomber so effectively employed at Paerl Harbor. It was based on the Heinkel 70 bomber. The Germans help Kawasaki build submarines for the Imperial Navy.

World War II

We do not yet have a full assessment of the level of cooperaion in scientific reserch in weapons development among the Axis. Such cooperation was clearly not as close as the very intense Anglo-American cooperation. The transfer of technology was a one way flow, from Germany to Japan. The Japane defeat by the Soviets in the Machrian border war (1939) should have convinced military planners that Japan was not in a position to wage a war with a modern European army. 

The Japanese do not appear to have drawn this conclusion. Japan joined the Axis (September 1940). At this time I do not have any details concerning immediate Japanese steps to obtain German technology. Most Japanese senior commanders were convinced that the country's warrior spirit and code of Bushido would bring victory. Some officers saw the need to acquire modern technology. One of these was Tomoyuki Yamashita. Yamashita was familiar with Germany having served as a military attaché there after World War I (1919-1922). 

Yamashita rose in the military hierarchy. He participated in the unsuccessful military coup (1936), but was not punished. He fought in the Manchrian border war against the Soviets (1939). After Primemister Fumimaro Kondoye appointed Hideki Tojo Minister of War, Yamashita was dipatched to Europe. He arrived in Germany with a shopping list for modern military technology. When he returned to Japan, he strongly advised against going to war with the United States or the Soviet Union until Japan had modernized its military. We have few details on German provision of military technology to Japan at this stage of the War. We do know that the Germans helped the Japanese build the Hind fighter which was based on the ME-109. 

The Germans insisted on substantial payments on the basis of commercial exchanges. It is unclear to us how aggressively the Japanes pushed or the Germans offerred their technology. We do know that despite very effective German naval radar such as the equipment on the Bismarck, Japan entered the War in the Pcific without naval radar. We do not fully understand if this was because the Japanese did not appreciate the importance or the Germans were unwilling to share the technology. Radar was of course a critical technology for carrier warfare. This did not change until late in the War. Germany in 1945 began sending the Japanese information on some of their weapons such a jet aircraft. The full extent of the provision of high technology weapons to the Japanese is not known. . The Nazi’s insisted on lisensing agreements. The transfers were mase by U-boat. There were shipments of uranium, but the weapons blanned are not fully understood.

Strategic Differences

Hitler made no effort to coordinate his invasion of the Soviet Union with his Axis partner, the Japanese. When Barbarossa stalled with the onset of Winter (November 1941), the Nazi’s began to give more attention to Japanese intervention. Japanese diplomats in Germany suggested that Japan would ebter the war against the Soviets. Instead the Japanese of course struck the United States at Pearl Harbor (December 1941). 

The Japanese were anti-Communist, but they were uncertain about Nazi success. Japanese diplomats were at first optimistic, but Tokyo officials were more skeptical. When in fact it became clear that the Nazi’s were not going to be able to prevail, they urged Hitler to make peace. There concern here was with their own military position. If the Allies were to defeat the Nazi's than they would face the Americans and British alone. 

The Japanese were increasingly frusrrated with Hitler's refusal to reach a true with Stalin. The Nazi demnands for both territory and demilitarization were clearly unacceotable to Stalin, especially as the military ballance turned increasingly against Germany. Japanese diplomats in Berlin correctly accesse Hitler's unwillingness to make peace and were hard pressed to deal with Tokyo's urging of a settlement between the Nazi’s and Soviets. Tokyo was also uneasy with the reports of the barbarous Nazi actions in the East.
This is interestng given Japanese actions in China. Magic intercepts provided the Americans a detailed view of Japanese assessments of the fighting on the Eatrern Front (which were quite detailed and accurate) and increasing Japanese unease as the military ballance shifted.

Youth Groups

The Axis alliance joined Nazi Germany, Fascit Italy, and Imperial Japan. There were also the junior parners in Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia). There were also junior partners in Asia (Manchuko and Thialand). We note no contacts between the HJ and Japanese youth. Here the distance and cost of such exchanges were probably the main factor. The Axis Alliance was formed during the War (although before Japan entered the War). 

Thus there was even less ability tooganize events. Racial differences might have caused a problem if exchanges had been possible. Nazi Germany's principal ally was Italy and after the Anchluss, the two countries shared a common border. Thus here exchanges were feasible and could be conducted at reasonable cost. We know that there were some such exchanges. We are not sure, however, about the extent of the contacts between the Hitler Youth and the Italian Balilla. We note HJ and Baliall leaders attending a celebrtion together, but have no details on an actual meting together. We have no information at this time as to the extent to which joint activities were planned. We also note photographs of HJ and Balilla boys. 

We are unsure to what extent there were actual joint activities conducted by the two groups. Many of the images of HJ boys with foreign boys are with Balilla boys. "The Italian fascist youth and the BDM didn't have very much in common. Another observer writes, "The BDM vistors were pretty shocked when they saw that the Italian girls were being trained to shoot rifles and drive trucks, and prior to their going to Italy, they were warned not too closely associate with the Italian youth." We note contacts between HJ and Japanese youth leaders, but not events with German and Japanese youth. The distances involved would have made this very expensive.

Defeat and Occupation

The three Axis partners were all defeated all defeated in the Second World War. Italy after arresting Musosolini signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Germany surrendered unconditionally after the Soviet Union and Western Allies had occupied much of the country in May 1945. Japan surrendered unconditionally before an American invasion in September 1945.

Sources

Boyd, Carl. Hitler's Japanese Confidant: General Oshima Hiroshi and Magic Intelligence (University of Kansas: Lawrence, 1993), 271p.
Gibert, Martin. A History of the 20th Century.
Goebbels, Joseph. ed, Louis B. Lochner, The Goebbels Diaries, 1942-1943 (Doubleday: New York, 1948), 566p.
Schom, Alan. The Eagle and the Rising Sun: The Japanese-American War 1941-1943 (Norton, 2003).